


Bulletin No. 23. 

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 

DIVISION OF BOTANY. 



S. P. I. 10. 



RUSSIAN CEREALS 



ADAPTEP FOR CULTIVATION IN THE 
UNITED STATES. 



MARK ALFRED CARLETON. 




WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, 
I Q O O . 




Book_£-ll_ 



/it 



Bulletin No. 23. S. P. i. 10. 

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

DIVISION OF BOTANY. 



07 

RUSSIAN CEREALS 



ADAPTED FOR CULTIVATION IN THE 
UNITED STATES. 



MARK ALFRED CARLETON. 




WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 



I900 






<f 






s 



64771 

NOTE. 

In securing the importations referred to in the text, Mr. Carleton's itinerary- 
was as follows: He set out from Washington July 4, 1898, his route lying through 
New York and London. On the European Continent he first visited a number of 
points in Sweden, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Roumania. From Constanta, 
in Roumania, he crossed the Black Sea \>y steamer to Odessa, first entering Russia 
at that point August 22. Ten days were spent at this important grain port. After 
this his visits were as follows: Mordarovka (Kherson Government), September 3; 
Kief, September 5 to 8; Moscow, September 12; Samara, September 18 to 23; Oren- 
burg, September 24 to 26; Samara, September 27 to October 1; Ufa, October 2 to 
4; Moscow, October 8 to 18; St. Petersburg, October 19 to November 2; Moscow, 
November 3 to 20; St. Petersburg, November 21 to December 1; Moscow, Decem- 
ber 2 to 8; Marie Experimental Farm, December 9; Saratof, December 10 to 15; 
Rostof-on-Don, December 17; Petrovsk, December 20; Tiflis, December 23 to 26; 
Batum, December 27; Sukhum-Kale, December 28 to January 1 . 1899; Novorossisk, 
January 2; Ekaterinodar, January 3 and 4; Odessa, January 7 to 15; Warsaw, 
January 17 to 20. Returning by way of Berlin, Bremen, Paris, London, and 
Liverpool, he arrived at Washington February 18, 1899. 
2 



LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 



U. S. Department of Agriculture, 

Division of Botany, 
Washington, D. C, November 1, 1899. 

Sir: In connection with the recent discussion of a prospective 
shortage in the wheat supply of the world within the next generation, 
some statistics of immediate concern to this country have been brought 
out, showing the probable relation of the grain supply of the United 
States to our domestic consumption at the end of that period. An 
estimate has been made by Mr. John Hyde, statistician of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, that by the year 1931, on the basis of the present 
per capita consumption of cereals and the present product per acre, 
with a normal increase in population, the United States will require for 
home consumption all the cereals and hay we now consume and export, 
besides all that can be raised on about 150,000,000 acres additional to 
the present area devoted to these crops. There can be no question 
that the product per acre in the area now devoted to grain will be in- 
creased by the development of superior strains and superior methods 
of culture; but this method of adding to our grain crop will probably 
be offset by a demand for a larger area for fruit and vegetables. 

It is clear that our domestic needs and the call for export grain will 
demand an enormous increase in cereal acreage. Where are we to 
find this land? A small portion of it only is to be found east of the 
Mississippi River. The remainder must come from the 600,000,000 
acres of unimproved land in the arid-land States. The most liberal of 
reliable estimates places the irrigable lands in this area at about 
70,000,000 acres. From the remaining 530,000,000 acres must be drawn 
most of the land that we require, and this land is too dry or too cold 
for the cultivation of the ordinary cereal crops. 

During the past decade great advance has been made in introducing 
into the arid region drought-resistant varieties of grain and grass 
which would mature a crop where ordinary varieties failed. From 
1888 to 1893 the Division of Botany maintained an experiment in 
western Kansas, one of the results of which was to demonstrate the 
success of Kafir corn as a grain and forage crop in an immense subarid 
area where Indian corn was either a total failure or a precarious crop. 
In 1893 the value of the Kansas crop of the different varieties of Kafir 

3 



corn was $653,120; in 1894, $813,156; in 1895, $2,079,286; in 1896, 
$3,599,646; in 1897, $4,275,774; in 1898, $5,842,682. The experi- 
ments showed also that Turkey wheat was one of the most drought- 
resistant varieties known in the West, and in the past few years it 
has become widely cultivated in the Great Plains. It is clear that 
one of the greatest possibilities of expansion in our cereal industry 
lies in the direction of securing new drought-resistant varieties with 
which to extend the cereal-producing area farther and farther into 
the arid region. 

Mr. Mark Alfred Carleton, who has been engaged for several years, 
under the direction of the Chief of the Division of Vegetable Physi- 
ology and Pathology, in an investigation of wheat varieties with ref- 
erence to their improvement, was detailed in July, 1898, as an agri- 
cultural explorer, of the Section of Seed and Plant Introduction. 
From that time until his return to Washington, in February, 1899, 
Mr. Carleton was engaged in an investigation of the cereals of Russia 
suitable for introduction into the United States, especially those 
adapted to the rigorous conditions of the arid West. It has seemed 
desirable to publish a detailed account of the cereals thus secured, 
both as a matter of record and for reference by experimenters. The 
accompanying report has been prepared with this in view, and its 
publication as a bulletin of this division is recommended. It is 
believed that before the end of a decade some of the cereals enum- 
erated in this report will have become established and important 
factors in the extension of the American grain-producing industry. 
Respectfully, 

Frederick V. Coville, 

Botanist. 

Hon. James Wilson, 

Secretary of Agriculture. 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Introduction 7 

Russian and American grain soils - . 8 

Climatic parallel . 9 

Russian cereals recently secured for trial 11 

Varieties of wheat . _ 12 

Kubanka spring wheat. . . 14 

Pererodka spring wheat 16 

Russian spring wheat - - . _ . 16 

Banatka winter wheat - 17 

Polish spring wheat . . 18 

Sandomir winter wheat 19 

Yaroslaf winter wheat 20 

Varieties of oats . . . . 20 

Swedish select oats .. ..„ 21 

Tobolsk oats . . _ 21 

Zhelanni oats . . _ . 21 

Varieties of barley. _ 22 

Kostroma spring barley 22 

Sisolsk spring barley . . . 23 

Varieties of rye. 23 

Teshitin winter rye 23 

Sisolsk winter rye T. 24 

Varieties of emmer ... 24 

Ufa spring emmer 26 

Yaroslaf spring emmer . 26 

Indian corn. ... 26 

Malakof sugar corn 27 

Varieties of millet 27 

Tambof broom-corn millet . . 28 

Black Voronezh broom-corn millet 29 

Red Voronezh broom-corn millet . . 29 

Red Russian broom-corn millet 29 

Red Orenburg broom-corn millet. 29 

Kursk millet 80 

Other introductions 30 

Orenburg buckwheat . 80 

Tambof flat pea... 31 

Polygonum weyrichii 31 



Page. 

Other Russian cereals now being obtained 31 

Varieties of wheat. 31 

Ghirka winter wheat. - - - 32 

Red Sandomir winter wheat - 33 

Buivola red winter wheat. — 33 

Red Kubanka winter wheat 34 

Crimean red winter wheat 34 

Arnautka spring wheat 35 

Other cereals -". 35 

Black Russian oats 35 

Moto maize 36 

Russian cereals already grown in this country 36 

Harvesting and subsequent operations in Russia 37 

Harvesting - 37 

Thrashing.. ---- 38 

Cleaning 38 

Milling .- 39 

Preparation of cereal foods -. 40 

Requisites of a proper test of new cereals 41 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



PLATES. 

Page. 

Plate I. Group of spelts, emmers, and einkorn, showing their differences in 

appearance .. ... 24 

II. Grains of Russian wheat and emmers (natural size) 25 

FIGURES. 

Fig. 1. Russian varieties of spring wheat 12 

2. Cleaning wheat in Kherson government . 39 



RUSSIAN CEREALS ADAPTED FOR CULTIVATION IN 
THE UNITED STATES. 



INTRODUCTION. 

For some time there has been a growing inclination among Ameri- 
can agriculturists toward the more general use of Russian economic 
plants, especially of cereals, forage crops, and fruits. In some in- 
stances the cultivation of Russian cereals has gone on many years 
without any knowledge, apparently, on the part of the growers that 
they originally came from Russia; as an excellent example, the red 
winter wheat, commonly called Turkey wheat, may be mentioned. 
This very hardy sort has been grown in certain portions of the Great 
Plains for more than twenty-five years. More recently the use of this 
variety has become very extensive, and fresh importations of seed 
have been made at different times. At present it is probably the 
most highly prized variety in the hard winter wheat belt, its value 
being most apparent in years of extreme drought or cold. It is then 
often the means of saving certain districts from total failure of crop. 
The name, however, is misleading, and few people know that it is 
a native of the Crimean region of Russia. Similarly the evidence 
is rather strong that the entire group of Fife wheats, upon which is 
founded the immense wheat and flour production of the Northwest, . 
came originally from Russia, and are not of Scottish origin, as many 
suppose. Therefore, the Fifes of the Red River region simply compete 
annually in the English market with their own race, the Ghirkas of 
the Volga region. So also Ames, Meekins, Grass, Black Sea, Mennon- 
ite, Ladoga, etc., are all simply special names of varieties of Russian 
oi'igin, though usually not known to be such. The same thing is true 
in regard to some excellent sorts of oats. If a grower finds a variety 
well suited to his needs, he usually cares little to know its pedigree. 

The experimenter, after giving years of study to the subject, learns 
that the great majority at least of introduced sorts that do best in 
his own region have uniformly originated in regions having similar 
soil and climate. In the case of Russian cereals introduced into this 
country, such parallelism is found to be especially striking. A series 
of field experiments, beginning with nearly 1,000 varieties of wheat, 

7 



8 

and 300 of oats, barley, rye, and spelt, have been carried on by this 
Department for four years. The results show conclusively that Rus- 
sian cereals, especially the wheats, are the sorts best adapted for cul- 
ture in the prairie and northern portions of this country. In con- 
nection with these experiments, an investigation has also been made 
of the soil and climatic features of the two regions in question — the 
Steppe or Chernozem region of Russia and the Great Plains — in so far 
as these features bear any relation to wheat culture. A detailed dis- 
cussion of the entire work is being prepared for publication in another 
bulletin. But it is thought well to present here briefly some of the 
important facts noted in that discussion, as a fitting introduction to 
the description of the particular varieties mentioned in this report. 

RUSSIAN AND AMERICAN GRAIN SOILS. 

The soil of the greater portion of the grain region of Russia and 
Siberia is well known in that country as the ' ' Chernozem " or " black 
earth." It is a broad belt of prairie, 600 to 700 miles in average width, 
beginning in Hungary and extending northeastward to the Ural 
Mountains, and then eastward into Siberia to unknown boundaries. 
On the north and west are " the gray forest lands" and on the south 
and east are salt and alkaline districts and sandy wastes, and finally 
the Caucasus and Ural mountains. By both chemical and mechanical 
analyses the soil is shown to be remarkably similar to that of our own 
prairies, also commonly known by the similar term of "black loam." 
The depth is, on an average, probably a little greater than that of 
our prairie soil. 

From a chemical standpoint, the soils of the two regions are simi- 
larly characterized (1) by an exceptionally large amount of thoroughly 
humified organic matter, (2) by the presence of an unusual proportion 
of phosphoric acid, and (3) by a great amount, comparatively, of lime, 
potash, and other alkalies. These soils are therefore alkaline, while 
many others, especially of forest regions, are acid. It is well known 
that the substances thus more abundant in these soils than in others 
are just those usually needed by the wheat plant. But the indirect 
influence of the great proportion of lime and humus in so changing 
the condition of other substances as to cause them to be more easily 
made use of by the plant is of equal importance. Of course, the 
amount of alkali present may become so great as to be really injurious 
to plant growth, forming actual alkaline wastes. But these are found 
only in certain restricted areas near the border of the black-soil 
region, and even in the vicing of these wastes the very best quality 
of wheat is sometimes grown. 

The mechanical structure of the soils, moreover, is of the very nature 
best adapted for giving the plant the benefit of the substances con- 
tained, even under adverse conditions of climate. Humus is a great 



absorbent of water, and the extreme fineness of the particles renders 
it very retentive of moisture. This quality is still further increased 
by the presence of so much alkali. Such soils, therefore, may hold 
for the growing plants a large proportion of the water that reaches 
them, and thus is explained, partially at least, the fact that they will 
produce a crop with half the rainfall required in forest regions. 

CLIMATIC PARALLEL. 

The similarity between the Russian steppes and the Great Plains 
is fully as great in climate as in soil, both regions being emphatically 
continental and subject to great extremes of temperature and moist- 
ure. In the greater portions of the two regions the winters are long 
and very severe, while the summers, though short, are intensely hot. 
Other noteworthy features of the climate are (1) the great number of 
clear days in the year, (2) the extreme amount of precipitation during 
two or three months of the summer as compared with that of the 
remainder of the year, (3) the character of this precipitation, falling 
in quick thunderstorms, as a rule, with very few days of mists or 
fogs, (4) the excessive heat of midsummer, following intensely cold 
winters, as alreadjr mentioned, and (5) the comparatively light snow- 
fall. These features, while common to the two regions, are consider- 
ably more pronounced for corresponding portions of the grain belt in 
Russia than in the United States. For this reason varieties brought 
from Russia are all the better adapted for cultivation in this country, 
as they are already used to even more rigorous conditions of climate 
than they will have to endure here. The snowfall, as a rule, is less 
on the Russian steppes than on the Great Plains. The rainfall is 
generally considerably less, and the extremes of temperature a little 
greater. At Samara, near the heart of the Volga wheat region, the 
mean annual rainfall is 15.6 inches (396.4 mm.), while at Bismarck, 
N. Dak., where it is considered to be already extremely dry for wheat 
growing, the average rainfall for the year is 19 inches (482.6 mm.). 
As to temperature, though the normal mean for the year is 39.3° F. 
(4.1° C.) at Samara, nearly 0.4 of a degree less than at Bismarck, 
where it is 39.7° F. (4.3° 0.), yet the July normal is 1.1 degrees higher 
at Samara than at Bismarck, being 70.3° F. (21.3° C.) at the former 
place and 68.3° F. (20.2° C.) at the latter. The following table will 
show clearly these features of the two regions in comparison with 
each other. The normal mean temperature for the year and for the 
months of January and July, the mean annual rainfall, and the mean 
total rainfall for the three wettest months of the year are given for 
four localities in each region as nearly corresponding with each other 
as can well be selected. At the same time, for comparison with other 
regions, similar data are added for three points farther eastward in 
the United States — Oswego, N. Y., Eastport, Me., and Lynchburg, Va. 



10 



Comparison of climate in Russia with United States. 



Locality. 



Samara, Russia 

Orenburg, Russia 

Ekaterinoslaf, Russia.. . 

Odessa, Russia.. 

Bismarck, N.Dak 

Huron, S. Dak 

North Platte, Nebr 

Dodge City, Ka,ns.. 

Oswego, N.Y 

Eastport, Me 

Lynchburg, Va 



Normal 

January 

temperature. 



°C. 
-12.7 
-15.2 

- 7.3 

- 3.1 
-14.8 
-14.1 
-6.7 

- 3.4 

- 4.2 
-6.5 

3.0 



°F 

9.0 

4.5 

18.7 

26.4 

5.3 

6.6 

19.9 

25.8 

24.4 

20.3 

37.4 



Normal 
July tem- 
perature. 



°C. 
21.3 
21.6 
23.4 
23.0 
20.2 
21.8 
23.4 
25.6 
21.0 
15.7 
25.4 



°F. 
70.3 
70.9 
74.1 
.73.4 
68.3 
71.2 
74.1 
78.0 
69.8 
60.2 
77.7 



Normal 
yearly tem- 
perature. 



°C. 
4.1 
3.2 
8.1 

10.1 
4.3 
5.8 
9.1 

12.0 
8.0 
5.2 

14.0 



°F. 
39.3 
37.8 
46.7 
50.1 
39.7 
42.4 
48.3 
53.6 
46.4 
41.3 
57.3 



Normal total 
rainfall 

three wettest 
months. 



Mm. 
176.6 
137.4 
202.2 
142.6 
320.9 
274.3 
236.2 
259.0 
233.6 
307.3 
284.4 



In. 
6.9 
5.4 
7.9 
5.6 
8.7 

10.8 
9.3 

10.2 

lit 
11.2 



Normal 

yearly 
rainfall. 



Mm. 
396.4 
395.3 
542.2 
431.3 
482.6 
548. 6 
485.1 
533.4 
889.0 
1,229.3 
1,130.3 



In. 
15.6 
15.5 
21.3 
16.9 
19.0 
21.6 
19.1 
21.0 

aj.o 

48.4 
44.5 



Tlie three wettest months for the different localities of the two re- 
gions compared in the table are May, June, and July, except in cases 
of Ekaterinoslaf and Odessa. At Ekaterinoslaf they are June, July, 
and August. For Odessa the months May, June, and July are used 
in the table, although the rainfall in November or December is greater 
than in May ; therefore the amount for these three months, in this case, 
is not so great in proportion to the 3 7 early rainfall as in the cases of 
the other localities. Nevertheless, even at Odessa the amount falling 
in these three months is very nearly one-third of the amount for the 
entire year; while at Oswego, Eastport, and Lynchburg, in the forest 
region of the United States, about one-fourth of the yearly total falls 
during that time, precipitation being pretty equally distributed 
throughout the year. At all other points in the Great Plains and 
Chernozem above mentioned over one-third the yearly precipitation 
falls in these months, and at Huron exactly half, while at three points — 
Huron, North Platte and Dodge City — the absolute amount falling in 
May, June, and July is greater than at Oswego. As regards tempera- 
ture, it will be similarly observed that, while the yearly mean at all 
points in the prairie region is generally lower than in the forest region, 
yet the extremes for January and July are always proportionally 
greater at the former points. But these extremes are also a little 
greater proportionally in the Russian steppes than in the Great Plains. 
The extremes at Samara and Orenburg are especially remarkable. 1 

Phytogeographical investigations have already shown that plants 
growing naturally in regions having the above-described characteristics 
of climate, particularly the very light yearly rainfall and excessive 
summer heat, are constituted differently from those growing naturally 
in wet or forest regions. To a less marked degree, perhaps, the same 



1 The figures upon which the above table is based are averages of many years' 
observations, and are given by the following authorities; Wild. — " Die Temperatur- 
verhaltnisse des Russischen Reiches," Tabellen, S. LXXII-CCXL, and " Die- 
Regenverhaltnisse des Russischen Reiches," S. 12-28: Kaiserl. Akad. der Wis- 
sensch.,St. Petersburg, 1881 and 1887. Klossovski.— " KlimatOdessui " (Russian), 
Meteorological Observatory of the Imperial New Russian University, Odessa, 
1893. Harrington, " Report of the Chief of the Weather Bureau," U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture for 1891-92, Washington. 1893. 



11 

is also true of cultivated plants that grow best in such regions. Besides 
other adaptations the plants that thrive best in the Russian steppes 
and the Great Plains are so constructed as to resist more or less the 
intense evaporating power of the hot, dry atmosphere. The cereals 
that are most successful in these regions, especially the wheats, are 
usually characterized by the possession of a short, slender, but firm 
stem ; very narrow leaves, often glaucous or pubescent, and of a gray- 
ish color; very narrow, compressed heads, often bearded, with very 
hard, heavy, small, red grains. In the cases of some exceptions to 
this description, for example, the varieties of Triticum durum grown 
in south and east Russia, the leaves, though quite broad, nevertheless 
possess a very harsh, glaucous surface, quite resistant to transpiration, 
as well as to the attacks of orange leaf rust; and the grains, while 
large and yellowish white, are still harder than the red grains of other 
varieties. The proportion of proteid matter in the grain is usually 
very great. 

For these reasons, one would naturally seek in a region like Russia 
and Siberia for cereals adapted for cultivation in our States of the 
plains. The fact that these cereals have to undergo more severe 
climatic rigors in Russia than in this country might be variously 
illustrated. As examples, the governments of Perm and Vyatka, 
with a rainfall as low as or less than our Great Plains for two degrees 
west of the one hundredth meridian, have stood for years at the head 
of the Russian governments in growing oats; while Samara, with wide 
extremes of temperature and a rainfall of only 15 to 16 inches, stands 
fourth as a spring- wheat government, producing an average of over 
24,000,000 bushels a year for the years 1892 to 1896. In the more 
northern portions of Russia, where the winters are especially severe, 
certain winter sorts have become, by long acclimation, very resistant 
to cold, and are particularly valuable for trial in corresponding dis- 
tricts of this country, where at present only spring varieties are grown. 

RUSSIAN CEREALS RECENTLY SECURED FOR TRIAL. 

In consideration of such facts as the above, and also of the fact 
that certain Russian cereals have already been tried in this country 
and found to be very successful, it was arranged that the writer 
should during the season of 1898-99 obtain, so far as possible, the 
best sorts of Russian cereals for trial in this country. Accordingly a 
visit was made to Russia and Siberia, and twenty-three varieties of 
cereals, one of buckwheat, and two of forage plants have been secured, 
besides numerous smaller packages of oil plants, melon, and garden 
seeds, and sample packets of seeds of other cereals and grasses for 
breeding purposes. In addition to the cereals thus already obtained, 
arrangements were made for the importation of others fully as valuable. 

Of the twenty-three varieties of cereals proper, seven are of wheat, 
three of oats, two of barley, two of rye, two of emmer, five of 
broom-corn millet, one of German millet, and one of sugar corn. 



12 



The different varieties were obtained from localities representative of 
large agricultural regions — the wheats, emmers, and millets mainly 
from the steppe or Chernozem region, and the other sorts from 
northern Russia and Siberia. 

VARIETIES OF WHEAT. 

The greatest objection that can be made against Russian wheats for 
this country is that so large a proportion of them are more especially 

adapte'd for spring plant- 
ing. 1 (Fig. 1.) Therefore 
a special effort was made 
to obtain winter varieties; 
but to get such from the 
proper localities is some- 
times difficult, and was 
particularly so the season 
of the writer's visit, when 
there happened to be an ac- 
tual wheat famine in the 
upper Volga region. Of one 
variety in particular, Win- 
ter Ghirka, which it was 
very desirable to secure 
from a latitude as far north 
and east as possible, not a 
grain could be found in any 
part of the governments of 
Saratof, Samara, or Oren- 
burg, although it had previ- 
ously been grown in those 
governments, an importa- 
tion from Samara being 
even now under experi- 
ment by this Department 
in Kansas and Nebraska. 
However, after long search- 
ing, several of the very 
best winter sorts yet known 
in Russia were found. 
But we have a very large spring- wheat belt in our own country, 
and it will be a long time hence, if ever, when winter sorts will be 

1 It may be briefly stated here that there are two chief reasons for the usual supe- 
riority of winter over spring varieties in the same locality: (1) The large amount of 
reserve force acquired by the winter- wheat plant in its root growth during the 
autumn gives it greater hardiness and productive power, so that winter wheats 
usually yield more than spring wheats: (3) winter wheats, by getting a better start 
in the spring, mature earlier, and therefore more often escape the effects of 
drought and damage by rust and chinch bags. 




l 2 a 4 

Fig. 1.— Russian varieties of spring wheat. 1, Imperial; 
2, Polish; 3, Gharnovka; 4, Belokoloska. 



13 

found that are sufficiently hardy to entirely supplant spring varieties. 
Besides, in the introduction of Russian spring sorts two other favorable 
circumstances are to be kept in mind : (1) Many of them are varieties of 
Triticum durum, at present little known in this country except in very 
limited districts. These, besides being considerably resistant to certain 
diseases, are the main varieties used for macaroni, and possess a very 
nutritious grain. To furnish entirely our own durum wheat for the 
manufacture of macaroni would be an important point gained. In one 
case, at least, the spring Fife .wheats of the Northwest are employed in 
making macaroni in this country. But no doubt a better product coukl 
be made with true macaroni wheats, though in the meantime, it is 
claimed that even with American wheats the American product is bet- 
ter than the Italian made from durum wheats. Nevertheless, the 
writer was told by the manager of a well-known cereal-food company 
that they would have engaged in macaroni manufacture years ago if 
there had been a home supply of these durum wheats. As it is, there 
were, during the years ending June 30, 1896, 1897, and 1898, from 
15,000,000 to 20,000,000 pounds of " macaroni, vermicelli, and similar 
preparations" annually imported into this country. Altogether, there 
is considerable evidence that there will be at least a good home 
market for these wheats once they are successfully grown in the 
United States. On the other hand, there seems to be no good reason 
yet why such varieties should not succeed in this country. 1 A con- 

1 Since the above was written, an article has appeared in the advance sheets of 
Consular Reports, No. 438, May 29, 1899, entitled " Wheat for alimentary pastes in 
France," in which the writer, John C. Covert, consul at Lyons, France, brings out 
still more strongly, and from the export standpoint, the facts already emphasized 
in this bulletin concerning these macaroni wheats. The entire article is important 
and interesting, but the following statements are especially worthy of quotation: 
"The continued growth of this (paste) industry will depend upon the supply of 
special kinds of wheat, for a decline in consumption would immediately follow 
any attempt to manufacture pastes of ordinary wheat. Paste makers are unani- 
mous in the opinion that American wheats will not answer their purposes; but, 
when one considers the almost endless variety of our soil and climate, it seems 
that some locality must be found where a suitable wheat can be grown. What is 
wanted is a hard wheat, containing a large percentage of gluten and a relatively 
small percentage of starch. Our wheat is lacking in both these desiderata. * * * 
Millers and bakers in France have found that bread is improved by putting into it 
a larger amount of gluten than is found in French or American wheats, and as a 
consequence very hard wheats — the Taganrog, generally — are mixed with the 
others. * * * If our farmers could produce such a wheat it would find more 
uses than in the pdtes alimented res above referred to. There would be an excellent 
market in yearsof drought in Russia. * * * These wheats can not be raised in 
France and must be imported, and they are the only kinds which are always sure 
to find a market in this country, as the French farming community will always 
demand, and are politically strong enough to secure, a high protective tariff on 
wheat and other grain. * * * Moreover, as the experience of the French has 
proven that an admixture of hard wheat in small quantities improves the quality 
of the bread, it is reasonable to infer that the practice will extend to other coun- 
tries, further enlarging the market for hard wheats." 



14 

siderable quantity of the sort called Nicaragua has already been pro- 
duced in southern Texas. The chief trouble in most of the few 
instances where these wheats have already been tried is that there was 
not sufficient perseverance in keeping up the experiments. (2) A sec- 
ond point in favor of Russian spring wheats is that many of them may 
be readily transformed into winter varieties when it becomes desirable 
to grow them so, if they are sown in the proper latitude. Indeed, the 
durum sorts, when grown below the thirty-fifth parallel, will probably 
succeed if sown at any time from October to March. On the other 
hand, red-grained spring varieties of Triticumvulgare of Russian ori- 
gin may be sown in autumn farther north than our ordinary spring 
sorts. 

KUBANKA SPRING WHEAT. 1 

The seed of this variety was obtained in the Turghai territory, in 
the Kirghiz Steppes, at a point about 40 miles southeast of Orenburg. 
The grain was grown by Mr. Gnyezdilov. The average annual rain- 
fall of the locality is probably 15 inches (381 mm.) or less, as it is 
a little drier than at Orenburg, where the rainfall is 15.6 inches 
(395.3mm.). For the growing season 2 it is about 8 inches (203.2 mm.) 
or less. The last season was unusually dry. The summers are short 
but intensely hot. In spite of the severe drought, there is very little 
shriveling of the grain. The soil of the locality is much grayer than 
the usual black earth of the Chernozem region, with a greater mix- 
ture of clay and sand. It is a significant fact that the soil is always 
thus of a grayer color where this wheat is most successfully grown. 
As the soil becomes blacker, when seed is transferred to different local- 
ities, there is an invariable change in the appearance and character of 
the grain. It becomes darker colored and a little softer, and is then 
called by the name "Pererodka." It also requires an exceedingly 
hot, dry, midsummer climate for the most perfect development of 
the grain. 

In this country just about the soil and climate to which this variety 
is adapted exist in the following districts: West Kansas, east Colo- 
rado, west Oklahoma, Texas Panhandle, southwest Texas, and certain 
dry hot portions of New Mexico. Arizona, and southern California, 
For spring wheat it is a common custom in east Russia to plow the 
ground in midsummer or autumn for the next spring planting. Then 
the surface is again slightly stirred just before sowing. This allows 
the soil to obtain and hold the greatest possible amount of moisture 
from the little rainfall that occurs. During the very severe winter, 
too, the alternate freezing and thawing mellows the soil, leaving it 
finally in excellent condition at sowing time after harrowing. This 

1 Inventory number. 2953. 

9 In all instances in this report of the use of the term "growing season" the 
period of May to September, inclusive, is to be understood. 



15 

custom of summer fallowing probably in a large degree accounts 
for the great production of spring wheat in east Russia, where agri- 
cultural methods are otherwise very crude and drought so frequent 
and severe. In localities so far north as the one from which this seed 
came it is impossible for fall-sown Kubanka wheat to survive the 
winter, but farther south, in the Kuban territory, it is successfully 
grown as a winter sort. In this country, from Texas to California, it 
may well be sown at any time from October to March, but may pro- 
duce unsatisfactory harvests until thoroughly adapted to a partic- 
ular treatment. 

The name Kubanka is derived from the name of a large and impor- 
tant wheat-growing territory in North Caucasus and bordering on the 
Azof Sea, called Kuban territory. It is without much doubt synony- 
mous with Beloturka, as the two names are commonly applied inter- 
changeably to the same variety. The name Arnautka is also occasionally 
applied to this variety, but the true Arnautka is certainly a distinct 
sort. Kubanka is a variety of Triticum durum, the species to which 
nearly all the macaroni wheats belong. However, it is not so good 
for making macaroni as is Arnautka. Kubanka wheat is one of the 
most highly prized varieties in Russia and has been popular for 
many years. At present it is grown throughout the Volga region 
from the latitude of Samara to the Caspian Sea, thence to the Caucasus 
Mountains and westward to the sea of Azof, and in portions of the 
Kirghiz Steppes and Turkestan. 

There are man3^ different strains or forms of the variety, caused by 
changes of soil and climate, including some that are fall-sown and able 
to withstand the 'winter. It is the popular bread wheat of the south 
Volga region, but in grinding it is always mixed with 10 to 25 per 
cent of a softer red wheat. This is an interesting and significant fact. 
The varieties of Triticum durum, called commonly "durum" wheats, 
are not supposed to be bread wheats at all, yet the excellent quality 
of Russian bread is frequently remarked upon by travelers. The 
grains of the best strains are large, extremely hard, whitish, and 
slightly transparent. The proteid content of the grain is rather large, 
but apparently of a different quality from that contained in the hard 
red wheats, being better adapted for making pastries and macaroni 
than for producing extreme lightness in bread. The millers in this 
country will probably experience some difficulty in grinding the 
durum wheats, and will be obliged, at the beginning at least, to use 
with them a considerable proportion of a softer variety. But if it 
shall be found that they can be widely and successfully grown in this 
country, and especially in districts where wheat was not previously 
extensively cultivated, it will be well worth the effort of millers to 
become familiar with some successful method of grinding. Also, the 
grain is so highly nutritious that mere habit should not be allowed 
to prejudice one against the use of the flour in bread making. 



16 

PERERODKA SPRING WHEAT. ' 

This variety was obtained in the Orsk district of Orenburg govern- 
ment. The average annual rainfall at the city of Orsk is 10. 6 inches, 
(270.1 mm.) and the rainfall for the growing season is normally 5.7 
inches, (146.6mm.). The mean annual temperature can not be given 
accurately, but it is probably not far different from that at Oren- 
burg, which is normally 37.8° F. (3.2° C), and for January 4.5° F. 
(-15.2° C), and for July 70.9° F. (21.6° C.) The soil of the Orsk 
district is the usual "black earth" of east Russia, though perhaps 
not so dark as the soil of the Samara region. The methods of 
culture and time and manner of seeding are much the same as for 
Kubanka wheat. In the Orenburg government the period of growth 
of spring wheat is about one hundred days. The mean harvest time 
is August 10 to 12, but both seedtime and harvest in the Orsk dis- 
trict are about or nearly one month later than in those parts of the 
United States where this wheat would most likely prove successful. 
This wheat — also a variety of Triticum durum — is very closely allied 
to Kubanka, The word ' ' pererodka " means something regenerated or 
degenerated. In the case of its application to this sort of wheat it is 
apparently understood to have the latter meaning. As already stated, 
when Kubanka wheat, by transference to darker soil, becomes softer 
and darker grained, it is called Pererodka. In this country Pere- 
rodka wheat is adapted for growing in a climate rather similar to 
that required for Kubanka, but may be grown in a darker prairie soil 
and a little farther north, in such regions as east Colorado and the 
western portions of Kansas, Nebraska, and South Dakota. It might 
well be tried as a winter sort in Kansas, Colorado, California, and the 
Columbia Plains. 

RUSSIAN SPRING WHEAT. - 

The seed of this variety was obtained from the Kirghiz Steppes, in 
the vicinity of Orenburg. The normal rainfall and temperature at 
Orenburg have already been stated. The summers are always very 
hot and short. The soil is a rich black earth, darker than in the Orsk 
district or Turghai territoiy. It is rather similar to west Dakota soils. 
The methods of culture, seeding, etc., are similar to those in use for 
the two varieties just described. The ground is nearly always plowed 
the previous autumn. 

The wheat is sown as early as possible. This sort, a rather small- 
grained, hard or semihard red wheat, is a variety of THticwm vul- 
gare. It is very similar to the Spring Ghirka wheat, and also to the 
Fifes of our Northwestern plains. It makes a very good bread flour, 
similar to that made by our Fife wheats, but is also mixed with 
Kubanka by millers of the Volga region. This is the common export 
wheat of all the north Volga region, and intergrades into other rather 



1 Inventory number, 2954. 2 Inventory number, 2955. 



17 

similar strains, grown quite extensively as far north as the Perm and 
Vyatka governments, and in the region about Cheliabinsk, in Siberia. 
In the north, however, the grains are often still smaller, as well as a 
little darker and harder. This variety, the Ghirkas, and the Ulka 
of south Russia make up the great bulk of the Russian wheat export. 
It is a variety admirably adapted for growing in North and South 
Dakota and Minnesota. In Nebraska, Iowa, and Kansas it might be 
successfully transformed into a winter variety. 

BANATKA WINTER WHEAT. 1 

The seed of Banatka wheat was obtained at Kublich, in the eastern 
part of Podolia. The normal annual rainfall of the district can not 
be given with accuracy, but it is probabty near 19.6 inches (500 mm.), 
and for the growing season about 11 inches (280 mm.) The locality, 
though a part of the Chernozem region, is near the border of a large 
tract of "gray forest land," and the soil therefore is somewhat mixed 
in its nature, partaking of the character of soils in both forest and 
prairie regions. In this part of Russia a great deal of winter grain is 
grown. The usual method of culture for winter wheat or rye is as 
follows: After harvesting a season's crop, in late July and August, 
the land is left fallow until the next summer. In the meantime, 
during the early part of the following spring, the herbage springing 
up on the fallow is sufficient to afford considerable pasturage. Two 
plowings are given the land. It is plowed first between June 1 and 
15. About four weeks afterwards — just after a rain, if possible — the 
plowed soil is harrowed. After three weeks longer, or during the 
latter part of July, it is cross-plowed, and a little deeper than the 
first plowing. This time it is not usually harrowed, unless there has 
been a very hard rain. The wheat is sown after the rains, that are 
expected sometime in August; but often the seeding is not completed 
until the middle of September. There is no harrowing just before 
seeding. The grain is usually sown broadcast and cross-plowed into 
the soil, running the j)iow very shallow, or it is sometimes drilled, 
especially on the larger estates. 

At the Uman Agricultural School in southern Kief, not far distant 
from Kublich, Mr. V. A. Poggenpol made between 1891 and 1895 a large 
number of phenological observations with regard to the time of 
occurrence of different stages in the development of agricultural 
plants. 2 

For winter wheat it was found that the average date of sowing is 
September 9, the date when it begins heading May 31 to June 1, the 
date of completion of heading June 9, the beginning date of flowering 

'Inventory number, 2956. 

2 V. A. Poggenpol: Results of Phytophenological Observations on the Stages of 
Development of Wild and Cultivated Plants at the Czarina Garden, and in the 
Fields of the Agricultural School at Uman, pp. 74; included in the Meteorolog- 
ical Review, by A. Klossovski, Odessa, 1896 (in Russian). 
9672— No. 23 2 



18 

June 5, the final date of flowering June 13, and the date of harvest 
July 15. 

This variety came originally from the Banat district in Hungary, 
where it is considered to be an excellent wheat. But it has been grown 
many years in southwest Russia, and through acclimation in that region 
is made probably all the better for cultivation in this country. It is a 
variety of Triticum vulgar e, a semihard red-bearded wheat, able to 
endure considerable drought and cold. The grain is of medium size 
and a little softer than that of the spring Ghirkas and the Russian of 
the Volga region and south Russia. It makes a good quality of bread. 
This variety and the sort called "Podolia" make up the bulk of the 
red winter wheat exported from southwestern Russia, by way of 
Odessa, though the winter Ghirka perhaps figures to some extent. In 
this country the wheat will probably be found adapted for cultivation 
in Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, Indiana, Ohio, Michigan, Iowa, and 
Nebraska. 

POLISH SPRING WHEAT. 1 

This variety was obtained at Glinyanaya, in the district of Elisavet- 
grad, in the northern portion of Kherson government. The normal 
rainfall and temperature of the locality is not known. At Elisavet- 
grad, in the same district, not far distant from Glinyanaya, the nor- 
mal annual rainfall is 16.7 inches (425.1 mm.), and the normal rain- 
fall for the growing season 9.8 inches (248.9 mm.). The normal mean 
temperature for the year at the same point is 44.6° F. (7° C); for 
January it is 40.2° F. (4.6° C), and for July, 70.8° F. (21.6° C). The 
soil is the ordinary rich black earth of south Russia. As is generally 
the case in south and east Russia, the ground for spring sowing is 
plowed the previous summer or autumn. The average date of sowing 
spring wheat is April 12 to 15, and the harvest occurs during the first 
two weeks of August. The soil of the locality from which this variety 
was obtained is a little too heavy and the climate perhaps not quite 
hot and dry enough in midsummer to be best adapted for such wheat. 
Nevertheless, it seems to have done exceedingly well in that district. 

The seed from which this strain of the variety was developed was 
obtained originally from a member of a colony in the Kherson district, 
in the southern part of the government — where the conditions are prob- 
ably a little better for the growth of this variety — at the suggestion of 
Agronom V. A. Bertenson, 2 of Odessa, and "grown on the grounds of 
one of the lower agricultural schools in Elisavetgrad district, under 
direction of the head master of the school, Baron E. E. Shvakhgheim. 
In 1896 Mr. Shvakhgheim grew on his own estate about 60 acres of this 
wheat, from which there was a harvest of 1,440 bushels, or a yield of 

1 Inventory number, 2957. 

-See Bertenson, " Polskaya Pshenitsa" (Polish wheat), pp. 16, Odessa, 1897. 
Reprint from the Report of the Imperial Society of Agriculturists of South Russia 
for 1897 (in Russian), 



19 

2-i bushels per acre. The seed was sown on mellow, fall-plowed land. 
The early part of the spring was rainy, and in spite of the drought 
that came later on, the result was an excellent harvest. The wheat 
was cut with a self-binder, and although the work was much delayed, 
there was very little loss of grain from shattering. 

True Polish wheat is a variety of Triticum polonicum, and must 
not be confused with the sort commonly called by that n'ame in south- 
west Russia, which latter is a variety of Triticum vulgare. Why this 
wheat is called Polish is not known. It is certainly not a native of 
Polaud, and, indeed, is very little known in that region. It is, besides, 
adapted to a very different sort of soil and climate. Polish wheat 
has been called by various other names, as follows: Algerian, 
Astrakhan, Lorraine, Egyptian, Diamond, Macaroni, Lebanon, Hima- 
layan rye, Jerusalem rye, Giant rye, etc. Its appearance in the field 
is strikingly different from that of all other sorts of wheat. The heads 
are of enormous size, especially in thickness, the glumes of the spike- 
lets are particularly broad and thin, and the grains, when perfect, are 
very long, and also hard and vitreous, as are those of durum varieties. 
There is a large per cent comparatively of gluten in the grain. 

Bread is occasionally made from the flour of Polish wheat. In 
taste it somewhat resembles that made from a mixture of ordinary 
wheat and rye flour. But so far this wheat has been used mainly 
for macaroni. 

Polish wheat, like some of the varieties of Triticum durum, is 
rather exacting as to the kind of soil and climate required for its 
most successful cultivation. In general it does best on a rather light 
soil. It should have considerable moisture at first, but ripens more 
perfectly in dry, hot weather. It is grown in several localities in 
south and east Russia and Turkestan. In this country it is prob- 
ably best adapted to such districts as southwest Texas, Arizona, New 
Mexico, and portions of southern California, eastern Colorado, west- 
ern Kansas and Utah. If used as a spring wheat, it should always 
be sown very early. But in most of the districts just mentioned it 
might be successfully grown as a winter sort, and could be planted at 
any time from October to March, depending upon the time of rain- 
fall. It should always be thinly sown. 

SANDOMIR WINTER WHEAT. 1 

Sandomir wheat was obtained from the government of Radom, in 
Poland. The mean annual rainfall at the city of Radom is 27 inches 
(685.8 mm.), and the mean total for the growing season 15.5 inches 
(393.7 mm.). The soil is of the kind characteristic of forest regions, 
being poorer than the soils of the Chernozem region. Manure is 
required, but is not so much used for winter crops as for spring, and 
sometimes not at all. For winter grains the ground is first plowed 

'Inventory number, 2958. 



20 

during the first half of May, and then plowed and harrowed at least 
twice afterwards before sowing. This keeps down weeds and leaves 
the soil in mellow condition. Winter wheat is harvested during the 
first week of August. 

This is the only one of the cereals obtained which is not intended 
primarily for dry cold regions. It is a rather soft, plump, yellowish- 
white wheat, a Variety of Triticum vulgare. The best seed is always 
to be obtained near the town of Sandomir, in the Radom government. 
It seems to degenerate easily when grown in a different soil or climate. 
It is a much-prized variety in Poland. This wheat has already been 
tried in the United States, even many years ago, but probably not so 
thorough^ as it should be. It would probably prove a valuable sort 
for making crackers and certain kinds of breakfast foods. In this 
country it is, perhaps, best adapted for growth in the Middle States, 
Virginia, Michigan, and from northern California to Washington. 

YAROSLAF WINTER WHEAT. 1 

This wheat was obtained in two localities, in the governments of 
Yaroslaf and St. Petersburg. At Yaroslaf the mean annual rainfall 
is 18.5 inches (46$. 9 mm.), and the rainfall for the growing season 
9 inches (230.-1 mm.). The soil where this seed was grown is a strong 
clay, and was well manured and well drained. The wheat was sown 
September 9 and harvested July 24, with a yield of 18 bushels per acre. 

At St. Petersburg the mean annual rainfall is 18. 5 inches (470. 5mm.), 
and for the growing season it is 10.6 inches (271.3 mm.) The normal 
mean temperature is 38.5° F. (3.6° C.) for the year, 15° F. (—9.4° C.) 
for January, and 63.8° F. (17.7° C.) for July. The soil where the seed 
was grown is a clay loam, rich in humus. The wheat was sown Sep- 
tember 4 and harvested July 24, producing 20 bushels per acre. 

This variety of Triticum, vulgare is a semihard, red wheat, which 
will probably be able to withstand very severe winters. But it 
should always be sown very early, and on soil that has been plowed 
immediately after harvest, and kept free of weeds and thoroughly pul- 
verized at the surface. On ground thus prepared the wheat should 
probably be sown at the proper time, whether rain has fallen or not. 
Persistent efforts -should be made to replace spring wheat with this 
variety in Iowa, northern Nebraska, and South Dakota, and even in 
the southern portions of Wisconsin, Minnesota, North Dakota, and 
Alaska. 

VARIETIES OF OATS. 

It has long been known that varieties of oats originating in cold, dry 
regions are as a rule superior in qualitj^ and vigor to those native in 
warmer countries. The same thing is more or less true with many 
other economic plants. It is quite a natural result, therefore, that 

1 Inventory numbers. 2791 and 2972, 



21 

wherever Russian oats have been already introduced into this country 
they have become very popular sorts, as the best oat districts in Russia 
and Siberia generally possess a climate a little drier and colder than 
corresponding oat districts in this country. In the selection of the 
following described varieties the aim was to secure good sorts from 
points as far north as possible. 

SWEDISH SELECT OATS. 1 

Seed of this variety of oats was obtained from the government of St. 
Petersburg. The rainfall and temperature of the locality is probably 
very nearly the same as already given for the city of St. Petersburg, 
under the description of Yaroslaf wheat (p. 20). The soil is a dark 
humus clay with considerable sand intermixed. For the cultivation of 
oats, the ground is either plowed very early in the spring or in the pre- 
ceding autumn, and left in furrow without harrowing until seeding time 
or until after a rain. Sowing is usually done by hand after the ground 
is harrowed, and the seed is then plowed in lightly with the small, one- 
horse peasant plow ("sokha"), followed again by the harrow. In 
some cases the drill is used. The crop from which this seed was 
obtained was sown April 27, the period of growth being one hundred 
and three to one hundred and eight days. Oat harvest occurs between 
'August 8 and August 20. Swedish Select is a very large-grained 
white oat, much improved from the original seed, which was intro- 
duced from Sweden into Finland and the St. Petersburg government. 
The variety has been tested at the Petrovsk Agricultural and Forestry 
Academy, near Moscow, by Professor Williams, who considers it to be 
an excellent northern sort. In this country it will be suitable for cul- 
tivation in all the extreme Northern States, from New York to Wash- 
ington, and in southern Alaska. 

TOBOLSK OATS.' 2 

This variety comes from the government of Tobolsk, in northern 
Siberia. The rainfall and temperature of the particular locality in 
which the grain was grown can not be given. At the city of Tobolsk, 
however, where the climate is probably not far different, the normal 
rainfall for the year is 18. G inches (473.4 mm.), and for the growing- 
season 12.1 inches (309.2 mm.). The normal mean temperature for 
the year is 31.7° F. (—0.1° C); for January it is— 2.1° F. (—18.9° C), 
and for July 66.6° F. (19.2 C). Tobolsk oats is a vigorous variety, 
with large white grains. It is admirably adapted to cold, dry regions, 
such as the extreme Northern States of this country and Alaska. 

ZHELANNI OATS. 3 

A small amount of seed of this variety was obtained at Ust-Sisolsk, 
in the government of Vologda. The locality is north of the sixty-first 

1 Inventory number, 2788. - Inventory number, 2800. '■'■ Inventory number, 2963. 



22 

parallel. The climate is extremely cold and rather dry. The normal 
rainfall can not be given, but during one year it was about 18 inches, 
and during the growing season 12.2 inches (310 mm.). The normal 
mean temperature for the year is 32.5° F. (0.2° C), and for the grow- 
ing season it is 52.8° F. (11.6° C). The soil of the locality is of the 
class usually to be found in forest regions. A sort of rotation of 
crops is practiced, as follows: (1) Fallow without manure; (2) winter 
rye; (3) spring barley and oats with manure. For growing spring 
crops the ground is plowed first either early in the spring or in the 
preceding autumn. Seeding of oats is accomplished from May 17 to 
22. It is considered to be very advantageous to soak the seed in 
water for two days before sowing, in order to hasten germination. 
The oat harvest occurs from August 25 to September 4. The crop is 
always cut by hand, often with the sickle. Thrashing is done with 
the flail, and the grain cleaned bj' the shovel-and-wind method in the 
open air. 

The variety was originally introduced into this locality from Mos- 
cow, but has been grown at Ust-Sisolsk for twelve years, and is there- 
fore thoroughly acclimated to the region. It is possibly the same as 
the sort known as "Welcome," as the name Zhelanni is simply the 
Russian translation of that word. The seed was obtained through 
the agricultural board of the Ust-Sisolsk district from the grower, 
Mr. M. I. Tur, who kindly supplied it free of charge. The variety is 
well adapted for trial in the coolest portions of the United States and 
Alaska. 

VARIETIES OF BARLEY. 

The distribution of barley cultivation in Russia is peculiar. By far 
the greater area, in proportion to that of other crops, is grown in the 
northern part and extends entirely to the Arctic Ocean. In fact, the 
proportional cultivated area given ■ to barley constantly increases 
northward from about the fiftj^-fifth parallel. In central Russia little 
or no barley is grown ; then southward its production increases again, 
especially toward the southwest. Spring sorts are grown generally, but 
a considerable quantity of winter barley is produced in the Caucasus. 

KOSTROMA SPRING BARLEY. 1 

This variety of barley was obtained in the government of Kostroma. 
The normal rainfall for the year at the city of Kostroma, in the same 
government, is 20.1 inches (511.6 mm.), and for the growing season is 
12.1 inches (307.4 mm.). The normal mean temperature for the year 
is 37.5° F. (3° C), for January it is 10.8° F. (—11.7 C), and for July 
66.2° F. (19° C). The soil of the locality is a sandy, clay loam, and 
was well manured. For barley the best land is supposed to be neces- 
sary, and beginning early in the spring the soil is plowed several 
times. Barley is sown much later than oats. In the Kostroma gov- 

1 Inventory number, 2793. 



23 

ernment it is sown from June 1 to June 13. The harvest takes place 
from August 22 to August 27. The period of growth of this variety 
is about eighty-eight clays. The crop which furnished this seed 
yielded 26 bushels per acre. In Russia this barley is considered to 
be especially valuable for beer brewing. It is adapted to a cold and 
rather dry climate, and is suitable for cultivation in the northwestern 
States from Michigan to the Dakotas. 

SISOLSK SPRING BARLEY. 1 

Sisolsk barley was obtained from the vicinity of Ust-Sisolsk, in 
Vologda government. The seed was donated by Mr. M. I. Tur and 
delivered by the agricultural board of the Ust-Sisolsk district. The 
latitude and climatic conditions of the locality and crop rotation prac- 
ticed there have already been mentioned under the description of 
Zhelanni oats. Barley is sown in this government from May 22 to 
June 4, and harvested from August 22 to August 27. This variety of 
barley is a vigorous, well-selected sort, and, comiug from a locality so 
far north, it should be admirably adapted for cultivation in the very 
coldest portions of the United States, including the tillable portion 
of Alaska. 

VARIETIES OF RYE. 

The yearly production of rye in Russia is far greater than in any 
other country. In 1897 the total production of rye was over 651,000,000 
bushels, of oats above 663,000,000 bushels, and of wheat over 340,000,000 
bushels. The distribution of proportional area given to rye cultiva- 
tion is just the reverse of that of the area devoted to barley, being 
greatest in central Russia and diminishing northward and southward. 
However, the greatest absolute yield of rye is rather far northward. 
The government of Vyatka takes first rank in rye production. The 
average yield of winter rye in Vyatka for the years 1892 to 1896, inclu- 
sive, was over 45,000,000 bushels, and in 1897 it was over 41,000,000 
bushels. In northern and eastern governments this cereal seems to 
find exactly the soil and climate best suited for its cultivation. Almost 
all of Russian rye is fall sown. Of the spring-sown rye by far the 
greatest bulk is grown in Siberian governments, especially in Tomsk 
and Tobolsk. 

TESHITIN WINTER RYE. 2 

Teshitin rye was obtained in the government of Tver. The normal 
rainfall for the year at the city of Tver is 20.1 inches (510.8 mm.), and 
for the growing season 12.5 inches (317.6 mm.). The normal mean 
temperature for the year is 37.1° F. (3.2° C); for January it is 14. 6° F. 
(_9.6° C), andfor July 63.8° F. (17.7° C). The soil of the locality is 
a sandy clay and rather poor. 

R}^e is the chief winter crop in this portion of Russia. The first 

'Inventory number, 2962. 2 Inventory number, 2T90. 



24 

plowing of the rye field is from April 30 to May 15. Between that time 
and seeding time the ground is harrowed two or three times and per- 
haps manured. The seed is usually sown by hand and covered with 
the harrow. Harvesting is generally accomplished with sickles. Rye 
is sown in the Tver government from August 20 to August 27, and is 
harvested from August 1 to August 13. Often the grain is not gath- 
ered in time to furnish seed for the following crop, but old seed has to 
be used. But this variety was harvested very much earlier and is a 
particularly early sort, the average length of time between seeding 
and harvest being 320 days. It is an excellent Russian rye and well 
adapted for growing in all our Northern States from New York to the 
Dakotas and southward to Kentucky and Kansas; also perhaps in 
Alaska. 

SISOLSK WINTER RYE. 1 

This variety comes from Ust-Sisolsk, in the Vologda government. 
The latitude and climatic conditions of the locality and the kind of crop 
rotation practiced have already been mentioned (pp. 21, 22). The seed 
was contributed free of charge by Mr. A. E. Sukhanov, and delivered 
through the medium of the agricultural board of Sisolsk district. The 
variety has been grown in that region for many j^ears, and is, there- 
fore, thoroughly adapted to an extremely cold climate, and is also 
rather drought-resistant. The methods of culture are probably much 
the same as for Teshitin rye in the Tver government. The time of 
seeding is from August 12 to 15. Rye is harvested in this govern- 
ment from about August £0 to August 25. This rye being a winter 
sort from so cold a latitude, will probably prove an excellent variety 
for the coldest districts of the United States and for Alaska. 

VARIETIES OF EMMER. 

Emmer is a cereal not well known in this country, but is grown to 
a considerable extent in the middle Volga region of Russia. It is usu- 
ally known as " Russian spelt," and is called by the Russians " polba." 
True spelt, however, is a different cereal, belonging to the subspecies 
Triticum spelta L., and is very little grown in Russia, if at all. Emmer 
is a German name, and seems to have no equivalent in English. The 
botanical name of the cereal is Triticum dicoccum Schrank. (T. 
amyleum, Ser.). It is the " Amidonnier" of the French in contradis- 
tinction from "epeautre," meaning spelt. 

Emmer is very much restricted in its cultivation in Russia, appar- 
ently by climatic conditions. It is similar to rye in being adapted to 
a rigorous climate, being very resistant to cold, and withstands 
drought quite well, at least in some instances. It is quite natural, 
therefore, to find that this cereal is grown in Russia almost wholly in 
the region east of the fortieth meridian, between the fiftieth and 

1 Inventory number, 2961. 



Bui. 23, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. 



Plate I. 




Bui. No. 23, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. 



Plate II. 



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9 

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Grains of Russian Wheats and Emmer (natural size). 
1. Beloturka; 2, Polish; 3, Banatka: 4. Turkey; 5, Black Velvet Emmer; 6, Winter Ghirka. 



25 

sixtieth parallels. Although the production is least of all the cereals 
in Russia, nevertheless there is a considerable quantity grown each 
year. In 1897 nearly 17,000,000 bushels were produced. The Gov- 
ernment of Ufa ranks first in the production of emmer, followed 
next, in the.order of their importance, by the governments of Kazan, 
Samara, Simbirsk, Vyatka, etc. In these governments not only is 
there extreme drought occasionally, but sometimes the summer is so 
short that the cereal crops suffer greatly from severe weather, both 
in late spring and early autumn. Emmer has, therefore, by virtue 
of its hardiness, taken the place of other cereals to a considerable 
degree. It also probably possesses an advantage over true spelt, as 
its period of growth seems to be shorter. Notwithstanding, it is 
alwaj^s necessary to sow very early. An appreciable amount of 
emmer is grown also in the Don and Kuban territories, and in 
Tobolsk government. 

The grains of emmer remain in the chaff in thrashing, as is well 
known to be true in cases of most varieties of oats and barley. On 
the other hand, the racing of the head is extremely brittle, so that the 
head easily breaks in pieces when very ripe and dry. Usually each 
spikelet of the head contains two grains, though sometimes there are 
three. The grains are somewhat boat-shaped or almost triangular in 
cross section. In all these respects emmer is very similar to spelt, 
but differs from the latter in several characters. In the spelt head 
the spikelets are situated far apart, and stand out from the rachis, 
while in the emmer the internodes are shorter and the spikelets stand 
close together in a compressed head. The leaves of emmer are often 
pubescent, and sometimes the heads as well. The grains are rather 
large, reddish, and usually quite hard, appearing vitreous in fracture. 

There are both spring and fall sown varieties of emmer, though in 
Russia almost all seeding is done in the spring. In the north nearly 
all the varieties have white heads, but in the Caucasus red-headed 
sorts are grown. Emmer is less exacting than wheat in all its require- 
ments for growth. It demands less care, will succeed on poorer soil, 
and withstands more severe weather. It will probably be found 
most profitable in cold, dry regions, and should be given a thor- 
ough trial in this country. It is rather resistant to the orange leaf 
rust. Though not possessing so good feeding qualities, perhaps, as 
oats, it may often, on account of its hardiness, take the place of that 
cereal where the latter can not be successfully grown. In Russia the 
grain is also much used for human food. The flour is occasionally 
used in bread making, though the bread is said to become dry and 
stale sooner than that made from wheat. A little rye flour mixed 
with that of the emmer improves the bread. The most prevalent use 
of emmer as a table food, however, is in the form of a gruel or porridge. 
It is prepared for this purpose in large quantities and sold chiefly in 
the market places of Samara, Ufa, and other cities along the Volga. 



26 

UFA SPRING EMMER. 1 

This variety was obtained in the government of Ufa, about 8 miles 
from the city of the same name. The normal rainfall for the year at 
the city of Ufa is 16.6 inches (421.8 mm.) and for the growing season 
10.9 inches (278 mm.). The normal temperature is 37.5° F. (3° C.) 
for the year, 7.6° F. (—13.5° C.) for January, and 69.4° F. (20.8° C.) for 
July. The soil is the usual deep, black loam characteristic of the 
Chernozem region. The ground is usually plowed in the autumn 
previous to the time of seeding, at least on the best farms. On 
account of the less exacting soil requirements of emmer, if there is 
any sort of crop rotation, it is usually preceded by two or more other 
crops. The seed is preferably drilled at the rate of l£ to 3 bushels 
per acre. When it is sown broadcast, as is often the case in east 
Russia, as much as 4 to 12 bushels per acre are used. Sowing should 
be accomplished veiy early, as this cereal will bear considerable late 
spring frost, and snow, and it is very desirable for it to ripen earlj'. 
In order to produce the most palatable grain for human food, emmer 
should be harvested only during dry, hot weather. 

Ufa emmer is a white-headed sort, with very hard red grains, which 
appear vitreous in fracture. The present seed was bought at the 
warehouse of the agricultural board of the Ufa district. The spike- 
lets are awned. This sort should prove particularly resistant to 
drought and cold, and probably to leaf rust. It is adapted for grow- 
ing in all the extreme Northern States of this country from Minnesota 
to Washington, in Alaska, and in arid districts farther south. 

YAROSLAF SPRING EMMER. 2 

This variety comes from the government of Yaroslaf. The normal 
rainfall and normal mean temperature for the city of Yaroslaf have 
been stated in the description of Yaroslaf wheat. The soil of the 
locality where this emmer was obtained is sandy, with considerable 
clay, but very little humus. The seed was sown about May 1. The 
period of vegetation of this sort in that locality is one hundred and 
eight to one hundred and twelve days. Yaroslaf emmer has white 
heads, with no awns or beards, and medium-sized reddish hard grains, 
though the grains seem not so hard as those of Ufa emmer. It will 
probably be successfully grown in all the Northern States from New 
York to Washington, and southward to the fortieth parallel. Both 
varieties of emmer here described should be tried as winter sorts also. 

INDIAN CORN. 

One is not likely to find in Russia many kinds of corn particularly 
superior to those of this country, where so many varieties and such an 
enormous quantity of this cereal are produced. Nevertheless, at least 
two sorts were found that were thought to be well worthy of introduc- 

1 Inventory number, 2959. ' 2 Inventory number, 2789. 



2-7 

tion. One of these, a field corn, lias yet to arrive. The other, a sugar 
corn, is already at hand. 

MALAKOF SUGAR CORN. 1 

This comes from Tula government, where the mean annual rainfall 
at Blagodatnoe is 19.1 inches (486 mm.), and for the growing season 
the average is 11.3 inches (286.9 mm.). The normal mean tempera- 
ture for the locality can not be given, but the summers are very short. 
In Tula this sugar corn is considered to be of excellent flavor, but is 
especially valued as a sort that ripens very early. It is suitable for 
such regions as Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, South Dakota, Michigan, 
Illinois, and perhaps North Dakota and Minnesota. 

VARIETIES OF MILLET. 

One of the most important cereal crops in eastern and southern 
Russia and in the Kirghiz Steppes and Turkestan is millet. By far 
the greater bulk of it is made up of varieties of Panicum miliaceum, 
known always among the Russians by the name "proso." It is the 
" Rispenhirse " of Austria-Hungary, and in Trans-Caucasia is called 
"phetvi " by the Georgians. In this country it has been distributed 
by seedsmen under the name of "broom-corn millet." The writer 
succeeded in obtaining a very fair representation of these broom-corn 
millets in the five varieties described below. 

The average annual production of millet (seed) in Russia (includ- 
ing Siberia) for the years 1892 to 1896 was over 60,000,000 bushels, and 
in 1896 there was an enormous yield of nearly 95,000,000 bushels. In 
1897 the production fell again to about 54,000,000 bushels. The 
greatest millet-producing governments are as follows, named in order 
of rank: Tambof, Voronezh, Kief, Saratof, and the Don territory. 
But Samara, Kursk, Ryazan, and the Ter and Kuban territories in 
North Caucasus all produce large quantities. In portions of these 
governments millet has become almost the "staff of life," in place 
of wheat bread. The broom-corn millets, like emmer, have the advan- 
tage over other cereals of being able to produce a good crop often 
when the latter entirely fail from adverse weather conditions. They 
are extremely resistant to drought, and probably produce even a 
better quality of grain during dry, hot weather, but of course must 
have some rain at certain periods in their growth. On the other hand, 
they differ widely from such grains as emmer in being very sensitive 
to cold. Nevertheless, they have ample time to ripen during the hot 
summers in regions as far north as the Samara and Simbirsk gov- 
ernments, which correspond somewhat in climate to North Dakota. 

Broom-corn millet is always valued chiefly for its seed, whether 
used as human food or in feeding stock. It is not so good for forage 
as the Hungarian and common millets. On the other hand, the seed 

1 Inventory number, 2799. 



.28 

is not only much larger, but it is very nutritious, and seems to have 
none of the drastic action on the alimentary system that is noticed 
in the seed of common millets. On account of the large size of the 
panicles the seed production is sometimes very great, the yield per 
acre in Russia varying from 20 to 50 bushels. 

The Russian sorts of broom-corn millet differ from each other chietty 
in the form of the panicle and in the color of the seed. The panicle may 
be erect and spreading, long and drooping, or very much compacted 
or club-shaped. The colors of the seed generally recognized are 
white, yellow, gray, red, and black ; the most common being red and 
white, with the former more common than the latter, especially in 
the driest regions. Both the colors and forms of panicle intergrade 
very much, and are sometimes mixed in the same crop. 

Occasionally other millets are also grown in Russia, especialty the 
one called there "Moghar," and often called in this country German 
millet, but probably more correctly Hungarian millet, being the same 
as the "Mohar" of Austria-Hungary (Chaetochloa italica germanica). 
False millet ( " Rosichka " in Russian) {Syntherisma sanguinalis) is also 
grown to some extent. But these millets are of minor importance. 

Plowing for millet is usually done during the autumn, as in cases of 
other spring crops. In east Russia, where most of the millet is grown, 
a great deal of new land is still being broken up, and in such cases 
red broom-corn millet is usually made the second crop, the first being 
either melons, or more often, perhaps, durum wheat. After millet the 
softer wheats are grown for several j^ears. Sometimes after old land 
has had a rest from cultivation a similar rather crude crop rotation 
is practiced. Millet is sown during the month of May, or even during 
the first week of June, depending upon the latitude and the condition 
of the weather. It is best to drill the seed in rows at the rate of 10 to 
15 pounds per acre. A warm, black, sandy loam seems to be the best 
soil. The millet, generally cut by hand, is bound in sheaves and placed 
in shocks, just as in harvesting wheat. Methods of thrashing and 
cleaning are usually very crude and primitive, but on large estates 
thrashing machines are sometimes used. 

TAMBOP BROOM-CORN MILLET. 1 

This millet was obtained near Morzhansk, in the northern part of 
Tambof government. The normal mean temperature for the year at 
Morzhansk is 40.2° F. (4.5° O); for January it is 9.2° F. (-12.0° C), 
and for July 08° F. (20° C). The normal yearly rainfall for the 
locality can not be given, but at the nearest point, Tambov, not far 
distant, it is 22.1 inches (563.5 mm.), and the normal for the growing 
season 10.8 inches (274.3 mm.). The soil of the locality is a black 
sandy loam, rather rich in humus. The usual time of seeding millet 
in this region is from May 10 to 25. The crop which furnished this 

"Inventory number. 27i)4. 



29 

seed was sown during the last week of May, and the vegetation period 
was about one hundred and twelve days. Millet is usually harvested 
there from August 25 to September 10. 

This variety is a yellow-seeded millet, and is considered to be a new 
sort, not yet well known even in that region, but said to have given 
excellent results. It is adapted for growing in Minnesota, the 
Dakotas, Iowa, Nebraska, and perhaps in Wyoming, Montana, Utah 
and east Colorado. 

BLACK VORONEZH BROOM-CORN MILLET. 1 

This is a black-seeded variety from the government of Voronezh, 
where three different sorts of broom-corn millets were obtained. The 
rainfall at the city of Voronezh is normally 22 inches (560 mm.) for 
the year, and 10.3 inches (263.9 mm.) for the growing season. The 
soil is the ordinary black sandy loam, containing much humus. The 
periods of seeding and harvesting are much the same as for Tambof 
millet. It is adapted for cultivation in almost all the prairie States, 
but especially in regions where there are hot summers. 

RED VORONEZH BROOM-CORN MILLET. 2 

This millet was also obtained in the Voronezh government. The 
rainfall, temperature, soil, time of seeding, etc., of the locality are the 
same or similar to those mentioned above under No. 2795. This variety 
is a red-seeded millet, with a very compacted club-shaped panicle, be- 
longing to the group Panicum miliaceum compactum of Kornicke. It 
is at least closely allied to the " Meiu Roca" of Rouinania, and may 
be the same. It is adapted for growing in most of the prairie region, 
but particularly in the drier portions. 

RED RUSSIAN BROOM-CORN MILLET. 3 

From the Voronezh government, also, comes the Red Russian broom- 
corn millet. The climatic and other conditions of the region have 
been given above. This variety is another red-seeded millet, but 
varies considerably in the form of the panicle. It is also suitable for 
the drier and hotter portions of the prairie region. 

RED ORENBURG BROOM-CORN MILLET. 4 

This variety was obtained in the Turghai territory of the Kirghiz 
steppes, 40 miles southeast of Orenburg. The crop which furnished 
the present seed was grown by the Kirghiz people. The approximate 
climatic and soil conditions of the locality have already been stated 
in the description of Kubanka wheat. It is in such regions as this 
one near Orenburg that these red millets find conditions exactly suited 
for their best development, which conditions are also ideal for the 
production of the best durum wheats. The summers are intensely 

1 Inventory number, 279."). 3 Inventory number, 2797. 

* Inventory number, 2796. 4 Inventory number, 2960. 



30 

hot and dry, and the soil is a grayish sandy loam. Of course there is 
much new land for cultivation in this region, and, as before stated, 
the first crop grown is usually durum wheat, which is followed by 
millet. Red millet seems to be far more commonly grown, but other 
sorts occur also, particularly yellow-seeded millet. Millet is sown in 
this region from May 13 to 27, or later, and harvested August 17 to 
September 6. The period of vegetation is considerably shorter than 
west of the Volga, because of the drought and heat. 

Though only the seed of this millet was seen, it is most likely a 
variety of Panicum miliaceum contractum Al., the group having 
pendent panicles, to which sort also the Red Japanese belongs. 
These red drooping millets seem particularly adapted to the driest 
regions. Varieties of probably the same group are grown on the dry 
steppes of eastern Roumania, between Bukharest and Constanta, as 
observed by the writer. The Red Orenburg is admirably adapted 
for cultivation in the very driest and hottest portions of our North- 
western plains and in the arid portions of the mountain and basin 
States. 

KURSK MILLET. 1 

The seed of this millet was obtained in the government of Kursk. 
The normal rainfall" at the city of Kursk is 16.9 inches (430.8 mm.) 
during the year, and 11.2 inches (284.7 mm.) for the growing season. 
The normal mean temperature is 41.3° F. (5.1° C.) for the year, 14.1° F. 
(-9.9° C.) for January, and 66.7° F. (19.3° C.) for July. The soil is 
a black, sandy, clay loam, rather rich in humus. This variety is called 
"Moghar" in Russia, and is one of the Hungarjan millets. In Russia, 
as in this country, it is used chiefly as a forage crop, being better for 
that purpose than the broom-corn millets. This particular sort is well 
adapted for growing in any part of the Northwestern plains. 

OTHER INTRODUCTIONS. 

Three other plants, not cereals, one buckwheat and two forage 
plants, were also obtained. They are introduced solely because highly 
recommended in the country from which they came, and may or may 
not prove to be of value in the United States. 

ORENBURG BUCKWHEAT. 2 

This seed comes from the Orenburg government, the climatic con; 
ditions of which have already been described under Kubanka spring 
wheat (p. 14). The soil where the crop was grown is a black, sandy 
loam. For the cultivation of buckwheat the ground is first plowed in 
the fall, and again plowed and harrowed several times before sowing 
in the spring. The crop is sown quite late, even later than millet, to 
avoid danger of frost. In the Orenburg government it is sown from 
June 1 to 13, and harvested August 17 to September 6. It is usually 

'Inventory number, 2798. "■ Inventory number, 2801. 



31 

cut bjr hand, often with the cradle. After drying awhile in the sun- 
shine, it is bound into sheaves. 

This buckwheat is grown considerably in east Russia and west 
Siberia. The seed is rather large, deep brown in color, and wingless. 
A sort of gruel is made of the hulled seed, or it is baked into cakes 
and served with soups. This variety is adapted for trial in the Great 
Plains north of Oklahoma, and perhaps in portions of the mountain 
Slates and in Iowa and Minnesota. 

TAMBOF FLAT PEA.' 

The seed of this forage plant (Lathyrus sylvestris wagneri) was 
obtained from the Tambof government. The climatic conditions of 
the region have been mentioned (p. 28). This is claimed to be a very 
good forage plant in the drier portions of the middle Volga region, but 
is slow in making a start. It is adapted for the States of the plains 
from Oklahoma northward. 

POLYGONUM WEYRICHII. 2 

This perennial plant came originally from the island of Sachalin, 
but was recentty grown in the government of Kief. It was discovered 
by a Russian physician, Dr. Weyrich, and first introduced into Russia 
from Sachalin by Prof. A. T. Batalin, and grown at the imperial botanic 
gardens at St. Petersburg. It is an entirely new plant for forage pur- 
poses, and no guaranty can be given as to its value for this country. 
It seems to have all the good qualities of sachalin (Polygonum sacha- 
linense) and at the same time the leaves are tender, and the branches 
are not woody as in the case of the latter, which was its chief objection. 
It is claimed by some that Russian cattle eat this plant readily, while 
others say they do not. It may be tried in all regions where sachalin 
has been grown successfully. 

OTHER RUSSIAN CEREALS, NOW BEING OBTAINED. 
VARIETIES OF WHEAT. 

The fact that so large a proportion of the annual wheat production 
of Russia is of spring varieties has already been remarked upon. In 
1897 the production of spring wheat was two and two-thirds times as 
great as that of winter wheat. Remembering the very severe climatic 
conditions prevailing in the greater part of the grain region, as already 
discussed, such a fact is not difficult to understand. In addition to 
the long, severe winters, the greater part of the little rain that falls 
during the year, as before stated, occurs in three to five months of the 
spring and summer. Such are ideal conditions for spring wheat, but 
for winter wheat there is so little moisture in autumn that it is very 
difficult and sometimes impossible for the plant to develop reserve 
strength enough, in the form of good roots, to withstand the winter. 



1 Inventory number, 2802, '-' Inventory number, 2804, 



32 

The severity of the winter, too, is always increased by strong winds 
and the lack of snowfall. In the part of Russia east of the fortieth 
meridian the extremes of climate are so great that very little winter 
wheat is grown north of the Stavropol government, though it is a very 
important export region for spring wheat. But in occasional instances 
where winter sorts are successfully grown in this region, they are 
invariably found to be very hardy varieties, as one would naturally 
suppose. Therefore a special effort was made to secure winter wheats 
from the Volga region. In the northern portion of this region no 
winter wheat at all could be obtained, but two varieties were found to 
be grown sufficiently far north to make them of interest for trial in the 
northwestern portion of the Great Plains, where thej^ may supplant 
spring wheats. Wherever such a change from spring to winter sorts 
can be effected, it ought to give great impetus to the wheat industry, 
judging from the good effects that have followed the increased use of 
winter in preference to spring varieties in northern Kansas and 
Nebraska, which began many years ago, and from the further fact 
that the yield per acre of wheat in Iowa (where spring wheat is almost 
entirely grown) is far below what it should be with such a soil and 
climate. 

Farther south, in north Caucasus and the Crimea, where the climate 
is very similar to that of Kansas, other winter varieties were found 
which are very resistant to drought and will probably also resist the 
leaf rust to a considerable degree. Besides, they possess a grain of 
very high quality. The red winter wheats of these two regions are 
without doubt the very best varieties of Triticum vulgare in the world. 
Two or three of these varieties are so far wholly unknown in this 
country. But those of the Crimea are very similar to the so-called 
Turkey variety now grown in the States of the plains. 

GHIRKA WINTER WHEAT. 

This variety is to be obtained in the government of Kursk. The cli- 
matic conditions and nature of the soil have been mentioned in the 
description of Kursk millet (p. 30. ) As already stated, this wheat could 
not be found in 1898 in any of the governments of Samara, Saratof, or 
Orenburg, although it has in other years been grown in these govern- 
ments in small quantities. However, in Kursk it is sufficiently dry and 
cold to make it quite probable that a winter wheat successfully grown 
there will prove to be very hardy for this country. Ghirka winter 
is a medium-sized or small, hard or semihard red wheat. The heads 
are beardless. Samples of the wheat from Kharkof and Samara have 
already been grown experimentally by the Department in this country, 
and it was found to be very hardy. Two objections to the variety are 
the small size of the heads and its lateness in ripening, but it varies 
so much in these respects that it can doubtless be greatly improved 
by selecting for seed the largest and earliest-maturing heads. It 



33 

yields well, and the grain furnishes an excellent bread flour. It is 
admirably adapted for trial in Iowa, northern Nebraska, northern 
Illinois, Michigan, South Dakota, and the southern portions of Wis- 
consin, Minnesota, and North Dakota. 

RED SANDOMIR WINTER WHEAT. 

This variety comes from the vicinity of Rtishchevo, in the north- 
western part of the Saratov government. The climatic conditions of 
the locality can not be given exactly. It is probably not so dry as at the 
Marie Experimental Farm, in the same government, where the normal 
rainfall is 15.2 inches (387 mm.) for the year and 8.5 inches (215.3 
mm.) for the growing season. The normal mean temperature for the 
year at Saratov, in the same government, is 41.7° F. (5.4° C), for Jan- 
uary it is 13.7° F. (-10.1° C), and for July 71° F. (21.7° C). The soil 
is the usual rich black loam of the Chernozem region. A winter wheat 
grown successfully in this locality ought to be a very hardy sort for 
our northern great plains. 

Red Sandomir is a varietj^ apparently not extensively cultivated 
yet. It is a hard or semihard red wheat, and is possibly a strain of the 
true Sandomir of Poland developed under different conditions of soil 
and climate, though this is somewhat doubtful. It is well suited for 
trial in the northern and western prairie States, even where spring 
wheat is grown. 

BUIVOLA RED WINTER WHEAT. 

This wheat is grown in the valley of the Buivola River, a branch of 
the river Kuma, about 100 miles nearly due east of Stavropol, in the 
Stavropol government, north Caucasus. The climatic features of the 
locality can not be given exactly, but it is very dry and hot in sum- 
mer. The drought is much greater than at Pyatigorsk (about 72 
miles distant), which seems to be the nearest point where meteorolog- 
ical records are kept. At that place the normal rainfall for the year 
is 21.7 inches (551.9 mm.) and for the growing season 14.7 inches 
(373.9 mm.). The mean temperature is normally 48.3° F. (9° C.) 
during the year, 26.9° F. (—2.8° C.) for January, and 68.9° F. (20.5° 
C.) for July. The soil is a deep black loam, though the locality is 
near the border of the Chernozem. There is much alkali in the same 
region. 

Buivola wheat is a medium-sized, hard, red-grained variety, very 
resistant to drought, and is considered to be the most rust-resistant 
and early-maturing sort in all the Caucasus. It is entirely unknown 
in this country and very little known in the greater part of Russia. 
The writer first saw a sample of the wheat in the possession of Mr. 
A. E. Filipchenko, wheat expert of the ministry of agriculture at St. 
Petersburg, who called it the best wheat in Russia. Afterwards it was 
learned at Rostof-on-Don that a considerable quantity of the wheat 
9672— No. 23 3 



34 

is exported by way of that port. This variety will be an exceedingly 
valuable sort for our western States of the plains. 

RED KUBANKA WINTER WHEAT. 

This variety is to be obtained from the Kuban territory in the vicin- 
ity of Ekaterinodar. The mean yearly temperature at Ekaterinodar 
is normally 53.7° F. (12° C); the normal for January is 28.2° F. 
(—2.1° C.) and for July 77.2° F. (25.1° C). The rainfall can not be 
given exactly, but it is probably not far from 27.5 inches (700.0 mm.) 
for the year and 14.7 inches (375 mm.) for the growing season. The 
soil of the Kuban territory is the usual black loam of the Chernozem, 
with varying proportions of sand and clay. 

The Kuban territory ranks first among Russian governments in the 
production of winter wheats. In fact, its average production for the 
years 1892 to 1897 is verj^ nearly twice that of Podolia, which ranks as 
the second winter wheat government. The climate and soil are rather 
similar to those of Kansas, Missouri, and Illinois. A number of dif- 
ferent varieties of good, hard, red or yellow grained wheats are grown 
in the territory. 

The fact that Kubanka spring wheat changes under different con- 
ditions of soil and climate has been mentioned. In this territory not 
only has the variety become red-grained instead of yellowish white, 
but it is now also able to withstand the winter. Thus, it is explained, 
has originated what is now called Red Winter Kubanka. It is a vari- 
ety apparently not yet extensively cultivated, but it is claimed by 
Agronom N. I. Morev, of Ekaterinodar, to be one of the very best sorts 
in the territory, being rather hardy and considerably rust-resistant. 
It is adapted for trial in this country in the region north of the thirty- 
fifth parallel, from Ohio to the Rocky Mountains, and as far north as 
winter wheat can be grown. 

CRIMEAN RED WINTER WHEAT. 

This wheat is grown in the central portion of the Crimea, not far 
from Simferopol, in the government of Taurida. The annual rainfall 
at Simferopol is normally 16.5 inches (419.3 mm,), and for the grow- 
ing season 8.1 inches (206.4 mm.). The normal mean tenrperature is 
50.1° F. (10° C.) during the year, 30.9° F. (—0.6° C.) for January, and 
69.2° F. (20.6° C.) for July. The summer climate is very dry and 
rather hot. Dry winds are quite prevalent during the period of 
growth of the wheat crop. Also in central and southern Crimea the 
greater part of the summer rainfall occurs in late summer, instead of 
during May, June, and July, as in other portions of south Russia. 
Hence the climate is on the whole rather severe, but nevertheless, so 
long as there is moisture at all sufficient to permit a harvest, the 
nature of the climate and soil together is such as to produce an 
extremely hard red grain of the very best quality. The soil is a deep 
black loam and contains a great proportion of alkalies. 



35 

The Crimean wheat is bearded and has very hard medium-sized 
red grains. It is closely allied to various sorts already introduced into 
this country from south Russia, and called by such names as Turkey, 
Red Russian, Russian Hard, Crimean, Russian Red Bearded, etc. 
It is admirably adapted for growing in Kansas, Oklahoma, Nebraska, 
Iowa, and South Dakota, and perhaps in Texas, North Dakota, Min- 
nesota, Illinois, and Missouri. 

ARNAUTKA SPRING WHEAT. 

This variety is to be obtained in the little peninsula forming the 
eastern portion of Crimea, in the government of Taurida. The climatic 
conditions of the region will be approximately shown by the records 
kept at Kerch. At that place the annual rainfall is normally 15.1 
inches (383.8 mm.) and for the growing season 8.1 inches (206 mm.). 
The normal mean temperature is 52.7° F. (11.5° C.) for the year, 
33.4° F. (0.8° C.) for January, and 75.1° F. (23.9° C.) for July. The 
soil is the usual black loam of the Chernozem, but with a considerable 
amount of sand. But aside from that there seems to be certain 
special features of the soil that can not yet be accurately described. 
At any rate it is pretty generally supposed among grain growers and 
agriculturists that only in very limited districts, similar to the one 
here described, are the soil and climate of the nature required for the 
best development of this variety of wheat. The rainfall, as in south- 
ern Crimea, is usually greater in late summer than in early summer, 
an exception to the general rule for dry regions. 

Arnautka wheat is a variety of Triticum durum, and is considered 
by many to be the best of all varieties for the manufacture of maca- 
roni. The grains are yellowish white, extremely hard, partially 
transparent, and vitreous in fracture, and are nearly, or sometimes 
fully, as large as those of Polish wheat. Field tests of the variety 
will be required to determine definitely the particular localities in 
this country in which it will be most successful, but in general it may 
be recommended for trial in dry alkaline districts from western Kan- 
sas to southwest Texas and in portions of New Mexico, Arizona, and 
southern California. It should be sown thinly and extremely early 
in the spring or late in the fall. The hotter and drier the weather 
the better for its best development, within limits, of course. It 
should be harvested only during the hot part of the day, so far as 
possible. If this wheat can by persistent effort be made successful 
in this country, it will no doubt prove to be one of the most valuable 
varieties, because of its suitability for macaroni production. 

OTHER CEREALS. 
BLACK RUSSIAN OATS. 

This variety is to be obtained from the government of Ufa; The 
soil and climatic conditions have already been stated in the descrip- 



36 

tion of Ufa emmer (p. 26). Coming from a region so far north and 
east, this oat will be admirably fitted for cultivation in all the extreme 
northern and western States of the plains, and perhaps Alaska. A 
variety called by the same name, and which is indeed probably iden- 
tical with this one, has already been grown many years in this country 
and has always proved to be hardy and productive, and in many 
instances, at least, rather rust-resistant. 

MOTO MAIZE. 

Moto maize is grown in the southern portion of Samara govern- 
ment. The climatic conditions of the locality can not be stated accu- 
rately. It is probably much drier and colder than at the city of 
Saratof, which seems to be the nearest point where meteorological 
records are kept. The normal annual rainfall at Saratof is 16.6 
inches (423.1 mm.), and the normal for the growing season is 7.5 
inches (191.9 mm.). The normal mean temperature is 41.7° F. (5.4° C.) 
for the year, 13. 7° F. (-10.1° C.) during January, and 71.0° F. (21.7° C.) 
during July. It is sodiy at an} T rate, and the summer season so short 
that any variety that is successful in that locality should be well 
adapted for our Great Plains climate at least as far north as the 
northern boundary of South Dakota and as far west as the 100th 
meridian. 

This variety of corn bears rather thin ears, tightly filled with very 
hard, small, reddish-yellow grains. It is claimed to be a hardy 
variety, resistant to drought, and, above all, very early in maturing. 
The grain probably contains a rather large proportion of proteid sub- 
stances. The variety ought to be valuable for the feeding of dairy 
cattle, for which purpose varieties furnishing a large proportion of 
nitrogenous matter are now considerabh T in demand. It is adapted 
for trial in all northwestern States of the plains. 

RUSSIAN CEREALS ALREADY GROWN IN THIS COUNTRY. 

Although a comparative study of the soil and climatic features of 
the grain regions of Russia and this country indicate decidedly that 
Russian cereal varieties are those best adapted, as a rule, for growth 
in our prairie regions, fortunately, as already stated, we have more 
than mere theory in support of such a proposition. Certain Russian 
sorts have already been well tested, and after thorough acclimation, 
are now considered to be of the highest grade. Reference has already 
been made to the variety known as Turkey wheat, and the Fifes of 
the northwest, which most likely were originally native in Russia. 
Such varieties as these make up a large bulk of the wheat export of 
this country; but in addition to these a number of other Russian 
wheat varieties have been grown for a considerable time. Some of 
the most important are Crimean, Red Russian, Russian Hard, Odessa, 
and Moscow. Still others, though promising to become excellent 



37 

sorts, have been tried only for a short time, and are not yet sufficiently 
acclimated. Of these there should be mentioned especially a number 
tested by the Department in different portions of the country. Some 
of them are very resistant to cold and drought. Of the winter varie- 
ties the most promising are Ghirka Winter, Red Winter, Bearded 
Winter, Vyssoko-Litovsk, Red Bearded, Don, and Yx, and the best 
spring sorts are probably Imperial, Krasnokoloska, Spring Ghirka, 
and Alsace. The last two named, in the early stages of growth, are 
peculiar in appearance, being usually soft-pubescent and grayish 
green in color. All the following Russian varieties of wheat, and no 
doubt several others that might be named, have been tried at various 
times in this country : 



Alsace. 


Crimean. 


Podolia. 


Sandoniir. 


Arnautka. 


Don. 


Polish. 


Saxonka. 


Beloturka. 


Krasnokoloska. 


Red Bearded. 


Spring Ghirka. 


Belokoloska. 


Kubanka. 


Red Ghirka. 


Taganrog. 


Bearded Winter. 


Ladoga. 


Red Russian. 


Turkey. 


Chernokoloska. 


Moscow. 


Red Winter. 


Winter Ghirka. 


Chernuska. 


Odessa. 


Russian Hard. 


Yx. 



A number of varieties of Russian oats have also been grown for 
many years in the United States, while still others have been tried 
and are supposed to be not successful. Black Russian, Black Tar- 
tarian, White Russian, Shatilovski, Zhelanni, Amur, and several 
Siberian sorts are among the best known of these varieties. Black 
Russian is a Avell known standard variety of the northwestern States, 
and is one of the best kinds of oats ever introduced into this country. 

Other Russian cereals have not, so far, been introduced on so large 
a scale, but several barleys, including naked varieties, some Siberian 
sorts of rye, and a few varieties of emmer ("spelt,") and broom-corn 
millet have already been grown to some extent. 

HARVESTING AND SUBSEQUENT OPERATIONS IN RUSSIA. 

It is hardly necessary to state, in the first place, that Russian methods 
of gathering and cleaning cereals are yet quite primitive in the greater 
portion of the country. Some of these methods have already been 
mentioned in the descriptions of the different cereal varieties. 



HARVESTING. 

As already stated, a common method of cutting the grain among 
the peasants is with the sickle. It seems that this instrument is espe- 
cially used in harvesting the durum wheats, where unusual care is 
used in handling the grain. The scythe and cradle are also often 
employed, particularly in harvesting the soft wheats and broom-corn 
millet. In a number of instances reaping machines which drop the 
grain without binding are used, and the writer was informed that 



38 

certain machines rather similar to the American header are occasion- 
ally employed in the same way as these reapers. Often after cutting 
with these machines the grain is simply raked up into cocks as in 
gathering hay. But in recent years, and particularly on the largest 
estates, a large number of self-binding harvesters have come into use. 
These are almost all of foreign manufacture and principally from this 
country. Methods of shocking and stacking grain seem to be much 
the same as with us. 

THRASHING. 

A common method of thrashing among the peasants is with the flail. 
Another method, however, which was often observed by the writer, is 
the driving of horses or cattle over circular winrows of straw, knock- 
ing out the grain by the tramping. This method is practiced even 
near Odessa in Kherson government. Sometimes sleds or drasfs, con- 
structed in various ways and often weighted, are pulled over the piles 
of grain, adding to the effects of tramping. The large thrashing 
machines are now often seen on large farms, though thej^ are by no 
means commonly used. Steam thrashers were occasionally observed 
in operation in the midst of many large ricks, reminding one of sim- 
ilar operations on a Dakota wheat farm, but such scenes were rare. 

CLEANING. 

The operations of cleaning grain are generally very primitive and 
very bad. For this reason it is impossible to obtain seed grain that 
is pure and free of weed seeds, unless it is all cleaned over again by 
some reliable seed firm. Even then it is often found that certain 
varieties require further cleaning on reaching this country. It is 
believed, however, that all the varieties mentioned in this report 
that have already been secured will be found to have been pretty 
thoroughly cleaned. 

In the many instances where the grain has not been thrashed with 
the large machines the complete separation of the chaff from the grain 
is often effected by the "shovel-and-wind" method — that is, the grain 
is simply allowed to stream from the edge of a shovel in the open air 
while the wind carries awa} T the chaff. For the separation of weed 
seeds and the grading of the grain, a circular sieve 3 or 4 feet in 
diameter is commonly used, as shown in the accompanying illustration 
(fig. 2). Such sieves are of different grades, depending upon the size 
of mesh which they possess. They are swung from the center of tripods 
made of rough poles, and are given various complex movements, which 
only a skilled performer can execute, in order to bring constantly a 
new layer of grain in contact with the sieve. This method of grain 
cleaning was often observed by the writer, and even in the rather 
advanced agricultural region of Kherson government, where the 
ordinary fanning mill is also sometimes used. Fanning mills are no 



39 

doubt used in other parts of the country also, hut are certainly rather 
uncommon. 

It should be remarked, however, that after all the existence of dirty 
grain, just as in all regions where grain growing is practiced on a large 
scale, is largely due simply to carelessness, however elaborate the 
cleaning machinery may be. On the other hand, the writer noted that 
in cases where great care was exercised excellent work was performed 
by the use of these simple circular sieves, though the operation is of 
course exceedingly slow. 

MILLING. 

In methods of milling great advancement has been made in Russia. 
The modern roller system has been in operation for almost thirty years. 




Fig. 2.— Cleaning wheat in Kherson government. 

Apparently most excellent work is being done in the larger mills along 
the Volga and in south Russia, work that will compare favorably 
with that done in this country and in Hungary. One of the mills 
visited by the writer, that of Schmidt Brothers, at Saratof, reminds 
one very much of the mills of our Northwestern States. It grinds 
wheat only, and possesses over ninety sets of rolls of recent pattern, 
new steaming machines, bolters, purifiers, etc. Dampening the wheat 
seems to be a very important operation, as most of the grain used is 
extremely dry. As mentioned in another place, the wheat generally 
used at the Volga mills is Knbanka or Pererodka, varieties much 
harder than any ever used in this country, though a considerable per 



40 

cent of the softer red wheats is mixed with these in grinding. But 
to gain a proper idea of the work these millers perform, it must be 
remembered that even the softer red wheats are fully as hard as the 
so-called hard spring wheats of the Dakotas and Minnesota. The flour 
thus produced is of a golden color and highly nutritious. After 
being accustomed to eating bread well made from such flour most 
persons prefer it to any other. Fortunately, in that country the color 
of the bread is considered to be of minor importance compared with 
its quality. A kind of bread which is especially common in Moscow, 
called "kalack," and always served warm, is very popular, and when 
well made is an agreeable novelty to the traveler. Yet this bread is 
said to be made from the fourth or fifth grade of the above-mentioned 
flour. 

PREPARATION OF CEREAL FOODS. 

In portions of Russia the bulk of the population depends almost 
wholly upon certain special cereal foods for their principal subsist- 
ence, and a greater number of grains are employed in making such 
foods than in this country. The chief plants represented in these 
foods are wheat, barley, rye, oats, emmer, rice, broom-corn millet, and 
the noncereal, buckwheat. But occasionally other grains are used, 
such as common millet, false millet (Syntkerisma sanguinalis), etc. 
The generic Russian term applied to these different foods in the raw 
state is " kr u pa, " corresponding to the word groats, and the gruel or por- 
ridge made from them is called " kasha." There are, however, many 
special names for the different kinds. Though these foods are much 
more important in Russia than in this country, the methods of their 
manufacture are less developed there, and apparently not so many 
kinds are produced from any one cereal. Because of lack of time and 
opportunity, the writer was not able to visit any of the mills devoted 
especially to manufacturing groats. The operations are known to be 
rather simple, and a large part of the production is really made at the 
ordinary flouring mills. The stones for grinding groats are hung 
either on vertical or horizontal shafts, and the grinding is done on the 
outer cylindrical surface by passing the grain between the stone and 
the casing. Several kinds or grades of groats are made sometimes 
from one cereal, but the product is always rather coarse, and in no 
instance was any sort of flaked product observed. • 

One of the most common cereal foods, especially in east Russia, is 
"psheno," made from broom-corn millet. The grains are so small 
that this form of groats is often little less than the hulled seed. When 
the hulled seed is very white it is sometimes artificially colored yellow. 
Millet groats make an excellent porridge, which is deservedly popular. 
A kind of pearl barley, much like our own food of the same name, is 
produced to a great extent. In the middle Volga region a kind of 
groats made from emmer is commonly seen in the market places. In 



41 

making this groats the grain is first hulled (which is never accom- 
plished in thrashing) and polished, and then either left in such con- 
dition or cracked. Another very popular food wholly unknown in 
this country is made from buckwheat groats ("grechevnaya krupa"). 
Two general types of groats are made from the hulled buckwheat — one 
made up of angular pieces, which is more common, and another com- 
posed of rounded pieces, known usually as Smolensk groats. Buck- 
wheat groats, as well as all others, are not only used for porridge, but 
very often in soups, in certain puddings, and in various other ways. 
A very common "kasha" on Russian bills of fare is the cooked buck- 
wheat groats compacted into cake form and served along with soups. 
On the other hand, curiously enough, buckwheat cakes seem to be 
generally unknown. 

REQUISITES OF A PROPER TEST OF NEW CEREALS. 

In view of the fact that several of the cereal varieties described in 
this report have already been tried in this country, and that objection 
is occasionally made to the further trial of Russian sorts on the ground 
that some of these have proved to be failures either in cultivation or 
in the milling process, it seems well worth while to point out the rea- 
sons for persisting in introducing these sorts. Taking into consid- 
eration the general similarity of conditions between the grain regions 
of Russia and this country, these reasons seem to the writer to be 
sufficiently shown in the following propositions: 

(1) Many or nearly all of our introductions of cereals heretofore, 
whether from Russia or any other country, have been made without 
sufficient information concerning the conditions under which the dif- 
ferent varieties were grown in their native home and the particular local- 
ities, if any, of this country to which they are best adapted. Wheat 
varieties, such as Kubanka or Algerian, from dry, hot regions, should 
never be expected to succeed in Canada or our Eastern States, though 
admirably adapted to the region from west Texas to southern Cali- 
fornia. Much time has been expended in the trial of Australian and 
Indian varieties, which, in the greater portion of our grain region, 
naturally enough succumbed to adverse weather conditions, though 
some of these same sorts are counted among the best in California. 

(2) In many cases, at least, it is of great importance to know also 
the conditions of cultivation to which different varieties have been 
subjected, and to practice as nearly as practicable such methods in 
this country in order to obtain the best results. This is especially 
true in the cases of varieties of emmer, broom-corn millet, and Polish 
and durum wheats. For example, complete success should not be 
expected from Polish and durum wheats without very early and thin 
sowing. In the descriptions of the different varieties in this report 
it is the aim to give all such information obtainable. 

(3) In some instances new varieties, although promising to do well 
9672— No. 23 4 



42 

in cultivation, are not accepted by millers because of the difficulties 
met with in grinding them and the new uses to be made of them. In 
such instances the miller's objection may not be well founded, espe- 
cially when we consider the fact that a ' ' good milling wheat " of thirty 
years ago is not considered to be a good milling wheat now. The 
wheat has not changed, but the mills changed in response to a demand 
for grinding very different sorts of wheat. If certain new varieties 
succeed in any region and also at the same time promise to form the 
foundation of a new industry, such as the production of a new kind 
of cereal food or even of a better quality of bread, one is certainly 
justified in expecting, not only any required change in method of mill- 
ing for handling these sorts, but even the invention and construction 
of entirely new mills for the purpose, if necessary. The miller himself 
usually disocvers later that changes of methods to conform to the de- 
mands of new crops are really after all an advantage to him financially. 

(4) Perhaps the most important reason for continuing the trial of 
certain new varieties is the simple fact that heretofore in many cases 
such perseverance has not been sufficiently practiced. In some 
instances entirely new sorts have been tested for one or two seasons 
and reported to succeed fairly well, but, without any apparent reason, 
no mention is afterwards made of any further trial of them. Again, 
in some cases the experimenter seems to have become discouraged on 
finding that certain sorts have succeeded only in one season out of 
two or three and abandoned the experiment, when if the trial had 
been continued valuable and well-established varieties might have 
been added to that region. The results of experiments with new varie- 
ties carried on by this Department, as well as the experience of other 
experimenters in different States and in Canada and Australia, show 
decidedly that no reliable conclusions can be drawn from the results of 
such experiments if they have not been continued constantly in the 
same locality during five to eight years. 

(5) Finally, there are certain varieties, such as macaroni wheats 
and broom-corn millets, which, if once proved by actual experiment to 
be well adapted to this country, would be of such manifest importance 
in forming the foundation of new industries that the utmost effort 
should be made to establish them even in the face of difficulties. All 
the best sorts should be tried in all soils and climates where they are 
at all likely to succeed, and before the impossibility of acclimatizing 
a valuable variety can be considered as demonstrated the experiment 
should be continued if necessary for five to ten years, using each year 
the best seed carefully selected from the preceding crop. 



b Mr '08 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 

0000^34^510 



